HOW DOGS THINK A NON-VERBAL LINK TO CANINE COMMUNICATION

[eurobich]

The following article was first published by DOGWORLD Magazine. It is presented here to convey the concepts behind Campbell's humane, non-punishment systems for correcting problem behavior in pet animals. Please feel free to copy the
article and use it as a means of spreading the word for a more enlightened approach to pet animal ownership. If you use it in a club publication, newspaper or magazine, etc., please mention it also appears in "Behavior Problems in Dogs," 3rd. ed. (1999) and in the New "Better Behavior in Dogs," 1999, A Guide to solving all your dog problems, (Direct Books - (800) 776-2665).
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HOW DOGS THINK
A NON-VERBAL LINK TO CANINE COMMUNICATION

copyright 1995 by William E. Campbell

Have you ever seen a device or a program designed to correct a dog behavior problem that explained how smart dogs are and how they think? Most plans or gadgets enable owners, literally, to declare war on their hapless pets. Little or no concern is afforded to what the dogs happen to think about them. In fact, the implication is that dogs don't think at all ... either they just react to external stimuli like robots , or respond according to genetically controlled "drives." Dogs are rarely credited with the ability to solve a problem mentally; to analyze a situation; imagine ways to manipulate or control it, then take a pre-planned course of action toward a goal that was preconceived in the dog's mind. In short, the dog is considered a real dummy, then treated like a dummy. But this concept is not correct. Dogs are smart. They can, and usually do, think rings around their owners. And they can do it because most owners have never learned how to think like a dog.

Understanding Non-Verbal Thinking

We all wonder now and then what our dog is thinking. If we wonder aloud, perhaps when mealtime is approaching and the dog is looking expectantly at us, we might say something like, "I'll bet Tippy's thinking, 'When is my dinner going to be ready?' " In all likelihood, Tippy isn't originating any thoughts about 'when dinner will be ready.' It is more likely Tippy is imagining (or 'imaging' in his mind) the words and movements you usually say and perform before getting his dinner; something like, "You want dinner, Tippy?" All that tail wagging and those pleading eyes are aimed at stimulating you to say it.

But, an inability to originate thoughts in a spoken language does not make dogs unintelligent. Even people don't actively think in a spoken language unless they actively 'speak' it. For instance, during a short vacation to Japan, if you don't already speak the language, you'll probably pick up the meaning of a few words. After a few natives look at you in the morning and say "Ohio," you may eventually learn that they're not curious about where you're from, but are wishing you a "Good Morning." Still, you won't think in Japanese unless you live there a few months and actively speak it. Even a pet Akita will never learn to speak or think in the native lingo because their voice boxes, tongues and lips cannot formulate the sounds of Japanese ... or English, or French, etc, etc. The limit of our dog's language-learning is the meaning of the sounds of certain words. Luckily, dogs are quick to learn the sounds that are important to them.

With this in mind, when Tippy is prodding us about serving dinner, we'd be wise to discard ideas about complete sentences being originated and thought about, and replace them with the non-language concept of mental images. To illustrate this further; when most Tippys are asking for dinner they actually look from their owners toward the place where it is served, generally the kitchen.

Evidence of Imagery

Some very convincing research suggests that dogs think in sensory impressions; visual, sound and odor images, etc. This is not to say that they sit around on quiet days experiencing videos inside their brains. However, they likely share our ability to form and experience in their minds certain images, odors and sounds. The scientific basis for this idea came from Russia and was published in the US in 1973. A scientist name VS.. Rusinov1 was studying the electrophysiology of the brain and had several dogs wired with brain wave equipment and radio transmitters. When the dogs were brought into the lab from the kennels for experimental conditioning tests, the electroencephalograph machine was turned on to record their brain wave patterns. This was done at the same time each day, five days a week. One weekend, purely by accident, Rusinov brought a group of visitors into the lab and turned on the EEG machine. Lo, the dog that was normally schedule for tests during the week at that time was sending wave forms nearly identical to his regular working patterns! When the testing time passed, the dogs' brain waves soon returned to their normal 'at rest' forms. I never found any mention by Rusinov as to whether the dogs out in the kennel were actually performing their conditioned laboratory behaviorisms. Chances are they were not, but one thing is almost sure; compared to human experience in similar types of studies, the dogs were apparently experiencing them mentally2,3.

The late Polish scientist, Jerzi Konorski,3 taught dogs to salivate and expect food in their trays when a light flickered. This was done regularly every few minutes. However, after a few trials, the dogs started salivating and looking at the trays as if the food were actually there, even though the light had not flickered. Konorski ventured that the dogs were hallucinating about both the stimulus (the light) and the reward for salivating (the food). One thing is sure: Something was going on in the dogs' minds that made them behave as if they were happening.

Some Human Examples

Before going on with dogs, let us consider some facets of our own 'mind's eye,' as suggested by Konorski. Imagine we have a date to meet a loved one at a busy restaurant. We get there on time and sit at a table near the door. Fifteen minutes go by, but no friend arrives. We begin to wonder if they are coming at all. We start watching people approach the door. Pretty soon, people with similar features almost cause us to call out to them. The more concerned and anxious we become, the more apt we are to mistake strangers for our friend. When he or she finally arrives, the pleasure and relief we feel is often mixed with mild displeasure. We are ambivalent ... we have mixed emotions about meeting them in the future.

Almost everyone has mental imagery. Often, just the thought of a loved one conjures up their image. This can apply to sounds, as well. Think about your favorite musical piece and your can often hear it in your 'mind's ear.' These are positive images. They are emotionally pleasant. At the other end of the scale, recalling a terrifying experience can not only create its images, but sometime even make us shudder. This is an example of negative, emotionally unpleasant images.

Back To Dogs

So it is with our dogs. When we are late getting home, or if they over-miss us because we spoil them with attention and petting every time they demand it, they very likely worry in images, too. They may well recall images of us and our activities, such as fluffing the pillows on the sofa, putting away record albums, handling magazines and books, putting on shoes just before leaving, sitting in a favorite armchair, etc. As a result of this, they often engage in activities which involve them with these images: Pillows wind up on the floor, albums or magazines are moved or chewed, a chair seat gets dug up, shoes are brought out of the closet. If they can't have us there, they try to interact with things that symbolize us.

If dogs really do store up and recall images of us and life's other objects and experiences, it follows that we might use this to our mutual benefit. But since most owners do not understand how dogs think, this imagery is where the seeds of most behavior problems are sown. Dogs receive and recall conflicting images of owners and many important experiences.

The Puppy's Dilemma

Consider the new puppy whose owners come home at regular times and join in an ecstatically joyful greeting ceremony. This imagery is quickly ingrained, and the pup begins to anticipate the experience, just Konorski's dogs hallucinated about the flickering light and the food tray. However, as will happen in even the most well regulated household, one day the owner is late. The puppy begins experiencing the images of his tardy owners ... starts fretting, pacing. Well primed energies, ready for the greeting ceremony, demand an outlet as the adrenaline starts pumping.

What's going on in its mind's eye or ear? It probably imagines hearing footsteps, perhaps even sees the door open... which doesn't happen. But it should. This introduces conflict between what it wants and expects and what is really happening. Conflict creates frustration. Frustration produces anxiety, which triggers an even greater adrenaline rush. The pup searches for something real to satisfy its desire to 'experience' the owner ... a magazine or book it saw the owner reading recently. It is rich with the owner's scent. If it cannot have the owner there, it can at least have their genuine odor or taste. So it sniffs, tastes, maybe even swallows parts of the article. Naturally, this does not fully substitute for the whole owner, so the puppy's social appetite is not really satisfied.

Finally, here comes the owner. The puppy innocently launches into its joyous, semi-hysterical ritual. The owner starts to join in, but spies the pulverized magazine or book. What's this? Naturally, if not wisely, the owner angrily grabs the pup, drags it to the demolished object and scolds it, or slaps it's snout or rump, or both. The pet's single-track mind is riveted on the owner. It yips, rolls over, or struggles vainly to escape. Punishment concluded, the owner angrily picks up the remnants of the article and storms to the trash basket.

Psychic Trauma

The net result of this is a totally confused pup with a conflicting set of images of its owner. This sort of shock to the nervous system is called psychic trauma in both animals and humans. A conflict has been instilled between the positive image of the owner (happy Dr. Jekyll) and the negative (Mr. Homecoming Hyde). This creates frustration and anxiety about homecomings, growing in severity if the scenario is repeated a few times. (It is interesting that in many cases, owners tell us that the pup was fine for a day or so after the first punishment. This may equate to the human experience of repression, in which memory of the traumatic experience is suppressed, creating a sort of 'backwards amnesia.') Even when this occurs, since the punishment was not associated with the act of chewing up something, the puppy seeks out another article, perhaps a shoe, and the cycle is repeated until the total relationship between owner and dog is tainted with emotional ambivalence. Mixed feelings are eating away at the positive qualities of their relationship. Negative emotional impressions may start to dominate it.

At about this stage, many owners conclude that the punishment may not have been severe enough. That's why the correction was not permanent. So they intensify it. The relationship erodes further as weeks go by. Enough of this cascading negative effect and the owner is ready take drastic action. The dog, now hyper-sensitive to its owner's mood change, feels something is wrong. This often is reflected by new problems, such as submissive wetting when the owner comes home or approaches the dog at other times; off-schedule bowel movements or urination occur, etc.

Many pets act insecure, currying more favor when the owner is home, and hence, missing the owner even more acutely when left alone. Frustration and anxiety build, while the isolation-related, tension-relieving behavior mounts. The unwitting owner, who originally may have thought the dog is 'getting even' for being left alone, begins to consider it incorrigible.

HELP!

This is when outside help is often sought. A book is purchased. The veterinarian, breeder, pet shop, a trainer or behaviorist may be consulted. If lucky, the owner gets advice that brings genuine insight into pet/owner relationships and dog behavior. But, more likely, they find traditional quick fixes and the dog winds up in a desensitization program; gets dosed with anxiety relieving drugs or barbiturates; is stuck in a cramped crate or cage all day, or banned to the yard or garage, or has its mouth stuffed with chewed debris and taped shut for hours. Since none of these approaches deal with the causes, the 'thinking dog' and the total relationship with its owners and the environment, success is rare. The majority of these formerly precious pets find themselves rejected ... relegated to the local pound for five to seven days, where the odds are 3-to-2 they'll suffer society's 'ultimate solution'. But things don't have to be so grim, if the owners learn some 'dog think.'

Applying Positive Imagery To Solve 'Separation Anxiety'

Dogs that misbehave when they are left alone are said to be suffering from separation anxiety. The term is a neat buzz-phrase; almost everybody uses it. It sounds professional. The trouble is, as a transplant from human psychiatry, it really doesn't convey much useful information. However, the term is here, so we'll use it in its broadest sense, which is; "a troubled feeling when left alone or apart from a certain person or persons." This allows us to recommend a remedial behavioral program that deals with the realities of the dog's total relationships. First, however, we must be sure that the dog's veterinarian has ruled out the many physical/medical causes for anxiety, such as thyrotoxicosis, hyperthyroidism, pre-diabetes, encephalitis, allergies, hyperkinesis, etc. etc.

The Program

Dogs that are unduly upset when left alone usually enjoy their owner's attention and petting whenever they ask for (or demand it) when the people are at home. To apply the imagery concept to this relationship, we could say the dog 'sees itself' as directing, or leading the owner. When it wants some petting, it nudges or otherwise stimulates the owner, and the owner complies. The dog wants out, whines at the door or at the owner, and the door gets opened. Mealtime approaches, dog whines and prances, and dinner gets served. When the owner goes from room to room, the dog is either ahead, leading them, or close behind. This is the reality of their relationship, at least in the dog's mind. But, when the owner leaves, against the dog's wishes, the pet is predictably upset, and problem behavior occurs. This can involve barking, chewing, pacing, self-mutilation, off-schedule bowel movements, urination around the house, etc.

The leadership problem can be turned about by presenting a different reality to the dog; one in which the dog is pleasantly, but firmly and consistently told to perform some simple act, such as 'sit' whenever it attempts to gain attention or affection, or whenever the owner wants to give the dog some attention. All 'sits', or whatever command is used ('down' is a good one for highly bossy dogs) are praised happily as 3 to 5 seconds of petting is awarded; then the dog is cheerfully released with an "OK" or "Free." (Free is a good release because OK is too common a word.)

If a really bossy dog refuses to obey, and many do when they realize their relationship is being turned around, simply ignore the situation, turn away and go on about some other activity, ignoring the dog. Some dogs have refused to respond for as long as four days before coming to terms with a follower relationship. However long it takes, after a few days the dog's image of itself seems to evolve from one of giving direction to taking it with compliance prior to being petted, getting dinner, going out the door, getting on the couch, etc.

In moving around the house, whenever the dog forges ahead, simply about-turn and go the other way. This must be repeated until the dog walks patiently behind or, better yet, doesn't even follow. It is also helpful, but not vital, to practice down-stays of increasing length during several evenings a week.

Images of Hyper-Emotionality

Most 'home alone' problem dogs get extremely emotional when their owners get home; some even get excitable when regular departure times approach. To supplant these emotionally over-stimulating images, sit quietly for about five minutes before leaving, in the area where the dog will be left. No eye contact or speaking is allowed. Then, get up and go without looking at or speaking to the pet.

At homecoming, enter quietly and ignore the dog until it quiets down completely. Then it is greeted happily, but briefly, away from the door of arrival. This subdued routine soon replaces the dog's highly emotional mental images of returns and departures with calmness and serenity.

Here's the tough part for most all dog owners: When coming home the place is a mess! Pillows have been chewed, or the chair is tattered again, or a pile of poop graces the doorway, or some other problem is evident. If we keep in mind that the dog has in the past suffered from conflicting images at homecoming, it is imperative that no emotion, or even attention, should be directed at the remnants of the problem; such as chewed up magazines, shoes, defecation, etc. Instead, after five minutes of ignoring the dog, it should be greeted away from the scene of the misbehavior, and then pleasantly taken outdoors or to another room and left alone while the mess is cleaned up. This avoids creating new (or reinforcing old) conflicting images of emotional reactions to, or interactions with, the debris, defecation, etc.

I have always called this 'the secret clean-up'. It has worked wonders as part of programs ranging from digging in the yard to housetraining puppies. Just why it is such an effective adjunct to correction programs remains to be satisfactorily explained. In the meantime, we'll have to say that the lack of an image of the owner and the mess is more beneficial to correction than is the image.

The Big Picture

So, there it is. Dogs think in images and we can mold and change their behavior in hundreds of ways if we will think as they do. For instance, on the negative side, a set up whereby a car screeches to a stop, horn blaring, just as a dog starts toward the street from the sidewalk, then praising its retreat, is a valuable exercise in negative imagery. However, it must be repeated until the dog avoids the street when cars are not present, as well.

Teaching the 'panic' command to come needs the dog's name followed by a code word, a sound image that is exclusive to coming when it is absolutely necessary, and praise words or a vocal rhythm that is unique to that command, coupled with fast hand-clapping while taking a crouched position. These combined, positive images can create a dog that will dependably respond to your code word and come to your praise. It is especially important to teach this command when the dog is out of sight, as well.

[eurobich]

http://www.pawsacrossamerica.com/interpret.html

How Dogs Think: Nonverbal Link to Canine Communication by W. E. Campbell
Intelligence of Dogs - lists breeds from most to least intelligent (based on S. Coren book)
Humor in Domestic Dogs by R. R. Decter
How Dogs Think by J. Feinman, VMD
Thinking the Way Animals Do by T. Grandin, Ph.D. (Western Horseman '97)
Trying to Think Like a Dog & Why by G. Kuntz
Modal Theory: Relationship between Emotional Status and the Cognitive & Learning abilities of Domestic Canines by I. Macdonald
Is the Basenji Intelligent? by K. McGrew
Q&A on the Dog's Mind (Dogworld with P. Moran)
Humanization: Does Your Dog Think He's a Human & Forget He's a Dog? by B. J. Oliver, MA
Changes in Behavior Associated With Aging in Dogs (SiriousDog.com)
Intelligence of Dogs by G. Wilkes

[eurobich]

The Intelligence of Dogs

ON GOOD BEHAVIOR - OCTOBER 1994 by Gary Wilkes

According to a recent book, Border Collies are the smartest of canines while Afghan Hounds are at the bottom of the intelligence scale. Before you decide that your dog is a genius or an idiot, you might ask this important question - what exactly is intelligence?

Most people would agree that intelligence has something to do with the ability to think. Some people would go farther and suggest that intelligence is the ability to "figure things out". Few people would consider a person's keen eyesight or fast reflexes as intelligence, yet dogs are often given credit for possessing intelligence based solely on their non-mental, physical attributes.

A good example of this is a dog's ability to anticipate when his owner is going to return home from work. Many dog owners are amazed that a dog will pace whine and go to the door as much a 30 minutes before its owner is expected. Is this a sign of intelligence or the ability to sense daily routines? Ivan Pavlov, the Russian physiologist, settled this issue over 80 years ago. He fed a dog punctually each morning for several weeks. Then, one morning, he withheld the dog's breakfast until after the usual time and watched closely for the dog's reaction. Within 20 seconds of the appointed time, the dog began to wag its tail and salivate - in anticipation of breakfast. Further tests confirmed that this was not an isolated incident. Dogs have an extremely accurate ability to sense daily routines. This ability to sense a daily pattern is not automatically a sign of intelligence, however. If you doubt this, remember that the same dog that goes crazy ten minutes before you get home from work is the same critter that wakes you up at five o'clock in the morning on Saturdays. The dog is capable of predicting a daily pattern, but incapable of understanding days of the week.

If we assume that intellect is the ability to solve problems, the particular physical attributes of dogs can skew the test data. In the 1940's, blood hounds were tested against beagles to see which had the better sense of smell. A test track was laid that included a place where a "fugitive" stepped up on a fallen log and walked several yards, elevated above the ground. Filmed evidence of this test showed remarkable reactions from the dogs. Every one of the beagles lost the scent at the point where the fugitive left the ground. Each of the bloodhounds lost the scent momentarily and then lifted its head and found it again. The conclusion of this test indicated an important fact - beagles are not less intelligent than bloodhounds, they are merely shorter. Had this test been used to rate these dogs' "intelligence", the bloodhounds might have mistakenly been considered "smarter".

A study of genetics and dog behavior in the 1950's took a more scientific look at this phenomenon. Drs. John Scott and John Fuller examined five breeds of purebred dogs and how they behave. Beagles, Cocker Spaniels, Basenjiis, Shelties, Fox Terriers and their hybrid offspring, took part in the experiment over a 12 year period. The findings of this study pointed to some obvious conclusions. Each of these breeds showed differing abilities at almost any given behavior. In a test using a large maze, Fox Terriers and Shelties had very slow scores initially, while Beagles and Basenjiis excelled. The primary reason for the Beagles' superiority was that they were highly likely to offer rapid and variable investigation of their environment - a trait that is of major importance when hunting small game. Basenjiis did almost as well as Beagles in the maze test for a completely different reason. The researchers concluded that the Basenjiis were slower to investigate by moving around, but more likley to use visual clues to solve the puzzle. The common sense conclusion would be that beagles and basenjiis are somehow smarter than Fox Terriers or Shelties - an assumption that would be premature. The researchers discovered over a series of tests that the Fox Terriers and Shelties improved their performance by being able to easily learn repetitive sequences. The Beagles had trouble because they have difficulty performing consistent routines. It is not that Beagles solved the maze faster because they are smarter, it is that their behavior is more variable. When consistency is needed, Beagles fall far below other breeds in "intelligence". The more accurate conclusion is that these breeds are not more or less intelligent than each other, but genetically programmed to learn different tasks with greater or lesser ease.

To test your dog's intelligence, here are several easy behavioral games that can rate Rover's performance. If your dog does not already know how to sit or lie down, substitue some other behavior.

· Clap your hands twice and then say "sit". Give Rover a treat if he sits. Repeat this behavior ten times. Now clap your hands twice and see what happens. If Rover picks up the idea that clapping twice is the same as the word "sit", in only 10 repetitions, he is very bright indeed. If clapping twice does not cause him to sit, try another set of ten repetitions. If he learns the association in under 50 repetitions, his brain is working perfectly.

· Hold your fist in front of Rover's face. Quickly open and close your hand and then say "sit". See how long it takes for Rover to develop and association to a visual signal.

· Dip a cotton swab in some vanilla extract. Wave the swab in front of Rover's nose and then say "down". Repeat this sequence exactly as you did with "sit". After Rover seems to be getting the hang of this, wave a clean swab in front of his nose. If Rover lies down, even without the correct scent signal, walk away and ignore him for 30 seconds and then try the test again. This process tests Rover's ability to discriminate one scent from another and to associate a particular behavior to a particular "scent command".

If your dog does not do well on these exercises, do not despair. These little tests are just as arbitrary and just as inaccurate as anything you will find in the popular media. Dogs come in hundreds of basic types and millions of individual personalities. There is no basic test that can fairly rate the intelligence of dogs. The fact is that the average Afghan hound gets fed, bathed, brushed, walked on a leash and pampered without having to lift a paw. By contrast, the border collie has to chase sheep all day, skip meals and live outdoors in driving rain or scorching heat. It appears that intelligence , like beauty, is in the eye of the beholder.

[eurobich]

Thinking the Way Animals Do

By Temple Grandin, Ph.D.
Department of Animal Science
Colorado State University
Western Horseman, Nov. 1997, pp.140-145

Temple Grandin is an assistant professor of animal science at Colorado State University. She is the author of the book Thinking in Pictures. Television appearances include 20/20, CBS This Morning, and 48 Hours. Dr. Grandin has autism, and her experiences have helped her to understand animal behavior. She teaches a course in livestock handling at the university and consults on the design of livestock handling facilities.
Unique insights from a person with a singular understanding.

As a person with autism, it is easy for me to understand how animals think because my thinking processes are like an animal's. Autism is a neurological disorder that some people are born with. Scientists who study autism believe that the disorder is cause d by immature development of certain brain circuits, and over development of other brain circuits. Autism is a complex disorder that ranges in severity from a mild form (such as mine), to a very serious handicap where the child never learns to talk. The m ovie Rain Man depicts a man with a fairly severe form of the disorder.

I have no language-based thoughts at all. My thoughts are in pictures, like videotapes in my mind. When I recall something from my memory, I see only pictures. I used to think that everybody thought this way until I started talking to people on how they t hought. I learned that there is a whole continuum of thinking styles, from totally visual thinkers like me, to the totally verbal thinkers. Artists, engineers, and good animal trainers are often highly visual thinkers, and accountants, bankers, and people who trade in the futures market tend to be highly verbal thinkers with few pictures in their minds.

Most people use a combination of both verbal and visual skills. Several years ago I devised a little test to find out what style of thinking people use: Access your memory on church steeples. Most people will see a picture in their mind of a generic "gene ralized" steeple. I only see specific steeples; there is no generalized one. Images of steeples flash through my mind like clicking quickly through a series of slides or pictures on a computer screen. On the other hand, highly verbal thinkers may "see" th e words "church steeple," or will "see" just a simple stick-figure steeple.

A radio station person I talked to once said that she had no pictures at all in her mind. She thought in emotions and words. I have observed that highly verbal people in abstract professions, such as in trading stocks or in sales, often have difficulty un derstanding animals. Since they only think in words, it is difficult for them to imagine that an animal can think. I have found that really good animal trainers will see more detailed steeple pictures. It is clear to me that visual thinking skills are ess ential to horse training, but often the visual thinkers do not have the ability to verbalize and explain to other people what it is they "see."

Associative Thinking

A horse trainer once said to me, "Animals don't think, they just make associations." I responded to that by saying, "If making associations is not thinking, then I would have to conclude that I do not think." People with autism and animals both think by making visual associations. These associations are like snapshots of events and tend to be very specific. For example, a horse might fear bearded me n when it sees one in the barn, but bearded men might be tolerated in the riding arena. In this situation the horse may only fear bearded men in the barn because he may have had a bad past experience in the barn with a bearded man.
Animals also tend to make place-specific associations. This means that if a horse has bad prior experiences in a barn with skylights, he may fear all barns with skylights but will be fine in barns with solid roofs. This is why it is so important that an a nimal's first association with something new is a good first experience.

Years ago a scientist named N. Miller found that if a rat was shocked the first time it entered a new passageway in a maze, it would never enter that passageway again. The same may be true for horses. For example, if a horse falls down in a trailer the fi rst time he loads, he may fear all trailers. However, if he falls down in a two-horse, side-by-side trailer the 25th time he is loaded, he may make a more specific association. Instead of associating all trailers with a painful or frightening experience, he is more likely to fear side-by-side trailers, or fear a certain person associated with the "bad" trailer. He has learned from previous experience that trailers are safe, so he is unlikely to form a generalized trailer fear.

Fear Is the Main Emotion

Fear is the main emotion in autism and it is also the main emotion in prey animals such as horses and cattle. Things that scare horses and cattle also scare children with autism. Any little thing that looks out of place, such as a piece of paper blowing i n the wind, may cause fear. Objects that make sudden movements are the most fear-provoking. In the wild, sudden movement is feared because predators make sudden movements.
Both animals and people with autism are also fearful of high-pitched noises. I still have problems with high-pitched noise. A back-up alarm on a garbage truck will cause my heart to race if it awakens me at night. The rumble of thunder has little effect. Prey species animals, such as cattle and horses, have sensitive ears, and loud noise may hurt their ears. When I was a child the sound of the school bell ringing was like a dentist drill in my ear. A loudspeaker system at a horse show may possibly have a similar effect on horses.

People with autism have emotions, but they are simpler and more like the emotions of a vigilant prey species animal. Fear is the main emotion in a prey species animal because it motivates the animal to flee from predators. The fear circuits in an animal's brain have been mapped by neuroscientists. When an animal forms a fear memory, it is located in the amygdala, which is in the lower, primitive part of the brain. J.E. LeDoux and M. Davis have discovered that fear memories cannot be erased from the brain. This is why it is so important to prevent the formation of fear memories associated with riding, trailering, etc.

For a horse who has previously been fearful of trailers to overcome his fear, the higher brain centers in the cortex have to send a fear suppression signal to the amygdala. This is called a cortical over-ride, which is a signal that will block the fear me mory but does not delete it. If the animal becomes anxious, the old fear memory may pop back up because the cortex stops sending the fear suppression signal.

Fear-based behaviors are complex. Fear can cause a horse to flee or fight. For example, many times when a horse kicks or bites, it is due to fear instead of aggression. In a fear-provoking situation where a horse is prevented from flight, he learns to fig ht. Dog trainers have learned that punishing a fear-based behavior makes it worse. When a horse rears, kicks, or misbehaves during training, it may make the trainer feel angry. The trainer may mistakenly think that the horse is angry. But the horse is muc h more likely to be scared. Therefore it is important for trainers to be calm. An angry trainer would be scary to the horse. There are some situations where a horse may be truly aggressive towards people, but rearing, kicking, running off, etc., during ha ndling or riding is much more likely to be fear based.

Effects of Genetics

In all animals both genetic factors and experience determine how an individual will behave in a fear-provoking situation. Fearfulness is a stable characteristic of personality and temperament in animals. Animals with high-strung, nervous temperaments are generally more fearful and form stronger fear memories than animals with calm, placid temperaments. For example, research on pigs conducted by Ted Friend and his students at Texas A&M University showed that some pigs will habituate to a forced non-painful procedure and others will become more and more fearful.
Pigs were put in a tank where they had to swim for a short time. This task was initially frightening to all of the pigs and caused their adrenaline level to go up. Adrenaline is secreted in both people and animals when they are scared.

Over a series of swimming trials, some pigs habituated and were no longer scared, but others remained fearful throughout the trials. In the pigs that did not habituate adrenaline stayed elevated, which showed that the pigs were still afraid.

It is likely that horses would respond to different training methods in a similar manner. Horses with calm placid dispositions are more likely to habituate to rough methods of handling and training compared to flighty, excitable animals. The high-strung, spirited horse may be ruined by rough training methods because he becomes so fearful that he fails to learn, or habituate.

On the other hand, an animal with a calm, nonreactive nervous system will probably habituate to a series of nonpainful forced training procedures, whereas a flighty, high- strung nervous animal may never habituate. Horses who are constantly swishing thei r tails when there are no flies present and have their heads up are usually fearful horses. In the wild, horses put their heads up to look for danger.

Effects of Novelty

As a creature of flight, how a horse reacts to novel or unusual situations or new places can be used to access his true temperament. French scientist Robert Dantzer found that sudden novelty shoved into an animal's face can be very stressful. A horse with a high-strung, fearful nature may be calm and well-mannered when ridden at home. However, his true temperament has been masked because he feels relaxed and safe in a familiar environment. When he is suddenly confronted with the' new sights and sounds at a horse show he may blow up.
It is the more high-strung and fearful horses who-have the most difficulty in novel situations. At the show there are many unusual sights and sounds, such as balloons and loud public address systems, that are never seen or heard at home. An animal with a nervous temperament is calm when in a familiar environment -- he has learned it is safe -- but is more likely to panic when suddenly confronted with new things.

The paradoxical thing about novelty is that it can be extremely attractive to an animal when he can voluntarily approach it. A piece of paper lying in the pasture may be approached by a curious horse, but that same piece of paper lying on the riding trail may make the horse shy. People working with horses and other animals need to think more about how the animals' perceive the situations we put them in.

[eurobich]

Copyright ©1996 HomeVet

Introduction

Have you ever seen a device or a program designed to correct a dog behavior problem that explained how smart dogs are and how they think? Most plans or gadgets enable owners, literally, to declare war on their hapless pets. Little or no concern is afforded to what the dogs happen to think about them. In fact, the implication is that dogs don't think at all ... either they just react to external stimuli like robots , or respond according to genetically controlled "drives." Dogs are rarely credited with the ability to solve a problem mentally; to analyze a situation; imagine ways to manipulate or control it, then take a pre-planned course of action toward a goal that was preconceived in the dog's mind. In short, the dog is considered a real dummy, then treated like a dummy. But this concept is not correct. Dogs are smart. They can, and usually do, think rings around their owners. And they can do it because most owners have never learned how to think like a dog.

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Understanding Non-Verbal Thinking

We all wonder now and then what our dog is thinking. If we wonder aloud, perhaps when mealtime is approaching and the dog is looking expectantly at us, we might say something like, "I'll bet Tippy's thinking, 'When is my dinner going to be ready?' " In all likelihood, Tippy isn't originating any thoughts about 'when dinner will be ready.' It is more likely Tippy is imagining (or 'imaging' in his mind) the words and movements you usually say and perform before getting his dinner; something like, "You want dinner, Tippy?" All that tail wagging and those pleading eyes are aimed at stimulating you to say it.

But, an inability to originate thoughts in a spoken language does not make dogs unintelligent. Even people don't actively think in a spoken language unless they actively 'speak' it. For instance, during a short vacation to Japan, if you don't already speak the language, you'll probably pick up the meaning of a few words. After a few natives look at you in the morning and say "Ohio," you may eventually learn that they're not curious about where you're from, but are wishing you a "Good Morning." Still, you won't think in Japanese unless you live there a few months and actively speak it. Even a pet Akita will never learn to speak or think in the native lingo because their voice boxes, tongues and lips cannot formulate the sounds of Japanese ... or English, or French, etc, etc. The limit of our dog's language-learning is the meaning of the sounds of certain words. Luckily, dogs are quick to learn the sounds that are important to them.

With this in mind, when Tippy is prodding us about serving dinner, we'd be wise to discard ideas about complete sentences being originated and thought about, and replace them with the non-language concept of mental images. To illustrate this further; when most Tippys are asking for dinner they actually look from their owners toward the place where it is served, generally the kitchen.

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Evidence of Imagery

Some very convincing research suggests that dogs think in sensory impressions; visual, sound and odor images, etc. This is not to say that they sit around on quiet days experiencing videos inside their brains. However, they likely share our ability to form and experience in their minds certain images, odors and sounds. The scientific basis for this idea came from Russia and was published in the US in 1973. A scientist named V.S. Rusinov1 was studying the electrophysiology of the brain and had several dogs wired with brain wave equipment and radio transmitters. When the dogs were brought into the lab from the kennels for experimental conditioning tests, the electroencephalograph machine was turned on to record their brain wave patterns. This was done at the same time each day, five days a week. One weekend, purely by accident, Rusinov brought a group of visitors into the lab and turned on the EEG machine. Lo, the dog that was normally scheduled for tests during the week at that time was sending wave forms nearly identical to his regular working patterns! When the testing time passed, the dogs' brain waves soon returned to their normal 'at rest' forms.

I never found any mention by Rusinov as to whether the dogs out in the kennel were actually performing their conditioned laboratory behaviorisms. Chances are they were not, but one thing is almost sure; compared to human experience in similar types of studies, the dogs were apparently experiencing them mentally2,3.

The late Polish scientist, Jerzi Konorski,3 taught dogs to salivate and expect food in their trays when a light flickered. This was done regularly every few minutes. However, after a few trials, the dogs started salivating and looking at the trays as if the food were actually there, even though the light had not flickered. Konorski ventured that the dogs were hallucinating about both the stimulus (the light) and the reward for salivating (the food). One thing is sure: Something was going on in the dogs' minds that made them behave as if they were happening.

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Some Human Examples

Before going on with dogs, let us consider some facets of our own 'mind's eye,' as suggested by Konorski. Imagine we have a date to meet a loved one at a busy restaurant. We get there on time and sit at a table near the door. Fifteen minutes go by, but no friend arrives. We begin to wonder if they are coming at all. We start watching people approach the door. Pretty soon, people with similar features almost cause us to call out to them. The more concerned and anxious we become, the more apt we are to mistake strangers for our friend. When he or she finally arrives, the pleasure and relief we feel is often mixed with mild displeasure. We are ambivalent ... we have mixed emotions about meeting them in the future.

Almost everyone has mental imagery. Often, just the thought of a loved one conjures up their image. This can apply to sounds, as well. Think about your favorite musical piece and your can often hear it in your 'mind's ear.'

These are positive images. They are emotionally pleasant. At the other end of the scale, recalling a terrifying experience can not only create its images, but sometime even make us shudder. This is an example of negative, emotionally unpleasant images.

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Back To Dogs

So it is with our dogs. When we are late getting home, or if they over-miss us because we spoil them with attention and petting every time they demand it, they very likely worry in images, too. They may well recall images of us and our activities, such as fluffing the pillows on the sofa, putting away record albums, handling magazines and books, putting on shoes just before leaving, sitting in a favorite armchair, etc. As a result of this, they often engage in activities which involve them with these images: Pillows wind up on the floor, albums or magazines are moved or chewed, a chair seat gets dug up, shoes are brought out of the closet. If they can't have us there, they try to interact with things that symbolize us.

If dogs really do store up and recall images of us and life's other objects and experiences, it follows that we might use this to our mutual benefit. But since most owners do not understand how dogs think, this imagery is where the seeds of most behavior problems are sown. Dogs receive and recall conflicting images of owners and many important experiences.

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The Puppy's Dilemma

Consider the new puppy whose owners come home at regular times and join in an ecstatically joyful greeting ceremony. This imagery is quickly ingrained, and the pup begins to anticipate the experience, just Konorski's dogs hallucinated about the flickering light and the food tray. However, as will happen in even the most well regulated household, one day the owner is late. The puppy begins experiencing the images of his tardy owners ...starts fretting, pacing. Well primed energies, ready for the greeting ceremony, demand an outlet as the adrenaline starts pumping.

What's going on in its mind's eye or ear? It probably imagines hearing footsteps, perhaps even sees the door open... which doesn't happen. But it should. This introduces conflict between what it wants and expects and what is really happening. Conflict creates frustration. Frustration produces anxiety, which triggers an even greater adrenaline rush. The pup searches for something real to satisfy its desire to 'experience' the owner ...a magazine or book it saw the owner reading recently. It is rich with the owner's scent. If it cannot have the owner there, it can at least have their genuine odor or taste. So it sniffs, tastes, maybe even swallows parts of the article. Naturally, this does not fully substitute for the whole owner, so the puppy's social appetite is not really satisfied.

Finally, here comes the owner. The puppy innocently launches into its joyous, semi-hysterical ritual. The owner starts to join in, but spies the pulverized magazine or book. What's this? Naturally, if not wisely, the owner angrily grabs the pup, drags it to the demolished object and scolds it, or slaps it's snout or rump, or both. The pet's single-track mind is riveted on the owner. It yips, rolls over, or struggles vainly to escape. Punishment concluded, the owner angrily picks up the remnants of the article and storms to the trash basket.

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Psychic Trauma

The net result of this is a totally confused pup with a conflicting set of images of its owner. This sort of shock to the nervous system is called psychic trauma in both animals and humans. A conflict has been instilled between the positive image of the owner (happy Dr. Jekyll) and the negative (Mr. Homecoming Hyde). This creates frustration and anxiety about homecomings, growing in severity if the scenario is repeated a few times.

(It is interesting that in many cases, owners tell us that the pup was fine for a day or so after the first punishment. This may equate to the human experience of repression, in which memory of the traumatic experience is suppressed, creating a sort of 'backwards amnesia.') Even when this occurs, since the punishment was not associated with the act of chewing up something, the puppy seeks out another article, perhaps a shoe, and the cycle is repeated until the total relationship between owner and dog is tainted with emotional ambivalence. Mixed feelings are eating away at the positive qualities of their relationship. Negative emotional impressions may start to dominate it.

At about this stage, many owners conclude that the punishment may not have been severe enough. That's why the correction was not permanent. So they intensify it. The relationship erodes further as weeks go by. Enough of this cascading negative effect and the owner is ready take drastic action. The dog, now hyper-sensitive to its owner's mood change, feels something is wrong. This often is reflected by new problems, such as submissive wetting when the owner comes home or approaches the dog at other times; off-schedule bowel movements or urination occur, etc.

Many pets act insecure, currying more favor when the owner is home, and hence, missing the owner even more acutely when left alone. Frustration and anxiety build, while the isolation-related, tension-relieving behavior mounts. The unwitting owner, who originally may have thought the dog is'getting even' for being left alone, begins to consider it incorrigible.

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HELP!

This is when outside help is often sought. A book is purchased. The veterinarian, breeder, pet shop, a trainer or behaviorist may be consulted. If lucky, the owner gets advice that brings genuine insight into pet/owner relationships and dog behavior. But, more likely, they find traditional quick fixes and the dog winds up in a desensitization program; gets dosed with anxiety relieving drugs or barbiturates; is stuck in a cramped crate or cage all day, or banned to the yard or garage, or has its mouth stuffed with chewed debris and taped shut for hours. Since none of these approaches deal with the causes, the 'thinking dog' and the total relationship with its owners and the environment, success is rare. The majority of these formerly precious pets find themselves rejected ... relegated to the local pound for five to seven days, where the odds are 3-to-2 they'll suffer society's 'ultimate solution'. But things don't have to be so grim, if the owners learn some 'dog think.'

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Applying Positive Imagery To Solve 'Separation Anxiety'

Dogs that misbehave when they are left alone are said to be suffering from separation anxiety. The term is a neat buzz-phrase; almost everybody uses it. It sounds professional. The trouble is, as a transplant from human psychiatry, it really doesn't convey much useful information. However, the term is here, so we'll use it in its broadest sense, which is; "a troubled feeling when left alone or apart from a certain person or persons." This allows us to recommend a remedial behavioral program that deals with the realities of the dog's total relationships. First, however, we must be sure that the dog's veterinarian has ruled out the many physical/medical causes for anxiety, such as thyrotoxicosis, hyperthyroidism, pre-diabetes, encephalitis, allergies, hyperkinesis, etc. etc.

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The Program

Dogs that are unduly upset when left alone usually enjoy their owner's attention and petting whenever they ask for (or demand it) when the people are at home. To apply the imagery concept to this relationship, we could say the dog 'sees itself' as directing, or leading the owner. When it wants some petting, it nudges or otherwise stimulates the owner, and the owner complies. The dog wants out, whines at the door or at the owner, and the door gets opened. Mealtime approaches, dog whines and prances, and dinner gets served. When the owner goes from room to room, the dog is either ahead, leading them, or close behind. This is the reality of their relationship, at least in the dog's mind. But, when the owner leaves, against the dog's wishes, the pet is predictably upset, and problem behavior occurs. This can involve barking, chewing, pacing, self-mutilation, off-schedule bowel movements, urination around the house, etc.

The leadership problem can be turned about by presenting a different reality to the dog; one in which the dog is pleasantly, but firmly and consistently told to perform some simple act, such as 'sit' whenever it attempts to gain attention or affection, or whenever the owner wants to give the dog some attention. All 'sits', or whatever command is used ('down' is a good one for highly bossy dogs) are praised happily as 3 to 5 seconds of petting is awarded; then the dog is cheerfully released with an "OK" or "Free." (Free is a good release because OK is too common a word.)

If a really bossy dog refuses to obey, and many do when they realize their relationship is being turned around, simply ignore the situation, turn away and go on about some other activity, ignoring the dog. Some dogs have refused to respond for as long as four days before coming to terms with a follower relationship. However long it takes, after a few days the dog's image of itself seems to evolve from one of giving direction to taking it with compliance prior to being petted, getting dinner, going out the door, getting on the couch, etc.

In moving around the house, whenever the dog forges ahead, simply about-turn and go the other way. This must be repeated until the dog walks patiently behind or, better yet, doesn't even follow. It is also helpful, but not vital, to practice down-stays of increasing length during several evenings a week.

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Images of Hyper-Emotionality

Most 'home alone' problem dogs get extremely emotional when their owners get home; some even get excitable when regular departure times approach. To supplant these emotionally over-stimulating images, sit quietly for about five minutes before leaving, in the area where the dog will be left. No eye contact or speaking is allowed. Then, get up and go without looking at or speaking to the pet.

At homecoming, enter quietly and ignore the dog until it quiets down completely. Then it is greeted happily, but briefly, away from the door of arrival. This subdued routine soon replaces the dog's highly emotional mental images of returns and departures with calmness and serenity.

Here's the tough part for most all dog owners: When coming home the place is a mess! Pillows have been chewed, or the chair is tattered again, or a pile of poop graces the doorway, or some other problem is evident. If we keep in mind that the dog has in the past suffered from conflicting images at homecoming, it is imperative that no emotion, or even attention, should be directed at the remnants of the problem; such as chewed up magazines, shoes, defecation, etc. Instead, after five minutes of ignoring the dog, it should be greeted away from the scene of the misbehavior, and then pleasantly taken outdoors or to another room and left alone while the mess is cleaned up. This avoids creating new (or reinforcing old) conflicting images of emotional reactions to, or interactions with, the debris, defecation, etc.

I have always called this 'the secret clean-up'. It has worked wonders as part of programs ranging from digging in the yard to housetraining puppies. Just why it is such an effective adjunct to correction programs remains to be satisfactorily explained. In the meantime, we'll have to say that the lack of an image of the owner and the mess is more beneficial to correction than is the image.

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The Big Picture

So, there it is. Dogs think in images and we can mold and change their behavior in hundreds of ways if we will think as they do. For instance, on the negative side, a set up whereby a car screeches to a stop, horn blaring, just as a dog starts toward the street from the sidewalk, then praising its retreat, is a valuable exercise in negative imagery. However, it must be repeated until the dog avoids the street when cars are not present, as well.

Teaching the 'panic' command to come needs the dog's name followed by a code word, a sound image that is exclusive to coming when it is absolutely necessary, and praise words or a vocal rhythm that is unique to that command, coupled with fast hand-clapping while taking a crouched position. These combined, positive images can create a dog that will dependably respond to your code word and come to your praise. It is especially important to teach this command when the dog is out of sight, as well.

Please note: The information provided here is meant to supplement that provided by your veterinarian. Nothing can replace a complete history and physical examination performed by your veterinarian. - Dr. Jeff

I greatly value your feedback. Please let me know what you think of this site and what you would like to see on it. drjeff@homevet.com

[eurobich]

Modal Theory:
Relationship between Emotional
Status and the Cognitive & Learning
abilities of Domestic Canines
by Iain Macdonald (rrenroc@bigpond.com.au)
Copyright © 2001 All rights reserved,
no reproduction of this material is permitted
without written permission from the copyright holder.


Contents:
Introduction
What is a Mode?
What is a Drive?
What is a Modal Threshold?
Prey Mode
Social Mode
Defense Mode
Modal Theory Training Applications
Summary
Introduction

The Modal theory is a theoretical framework, which seeks to explain the extent to which canine behavior, cognition, and learning are influenced by emotional status. It puts forward the concept that the emotional reactivity causes a prioritization of environmental events/information. Such a prioritization ensures the dog treats all information with regards to relevance according to its emotional status at the time. This adaptive mechanism of information processing is vital for the survival of the dog in its natural state and is a powerful tool to be used in training the domestic canine.

What is a Mode?

A mode is an operational frame of mind the dog works in. This operational frame of mind will prioritize items/events in the dog's mind relevant to the mode in which the dog is currently operating. This mode is also easily described as an emotional state of mind. A mode does not lessen the cognitive abilities of the dog; rather it prioritizes the information to assist the cognitive functioning of the dog. Modes are often termed as drives in dog training literature but this implies an instinctive/automatic reactionary process that fails to fully encompass the workings of the dogs mind whilst in this state. Such terminology also makes it very difficult to quantify between innate potential and emotional responsiveness. It is often argued in scientific circles that true instincts are very rare and can be best described as chains of behaviors that we do not yet fully understand. There are three major modes the dog works in; defense, prey and social. The primary reason for all three modes of behavior is to ensure the survival of the individual.

What is a Drive?

Frequently mentioned in this article is the term drive, this refers to the innate reactivity potential of the dog in each of the three operational modes. This does not imply that the threshold is innate, it is a learned response, but frequently high or extreme drive dogs do have a low threshold. This innate potential can be impacted upon in critical periods of the pup's development. This impact can be positive or negative. A breeder which encourages retrieval in their pups when young (early as 4 weeks) will tend to produce high drive dogs, provided that a balance is reached in this building so as not to bore the dog, whereby the impact will be negative and the dogs innate drive will be lowered. A breeder who does not encourage such activities in the dog will tend to produce dogs of lower drive.

This impact on the innate potential of the dog is again basically a survival-orientated mechanism. If the dog has inborn potential but this is not encouraged by its environment it will tend to be lost or impeded as the drive is not required, or at least not in its upper levels for the dogs survival. This is the natural adaptively of the dog coming into play. Interesting to note is that early Swedish research pointed to the fact that high prey drives or at least a high retrieval drive was indicative of a highly trainable dog. This is supported by this theory as well except it is not the fact that a dog has a high drive which makes it a trainable dog per say, rather it is the ease in which the dog can be rewarded without confusion we see as the contributing factor. Either way, highly driven dogs are certainly more easily trained than less driven counterparts.

As stated high drives can be very desirable in a training sense. Indicators of high drives are as follows:

Prey: retrieval, chasing, possessiveness, etc.
Social: strong bonding, separation anxiety, etc.
Defense: aggression, high reactivity to threatening stimuli, protectiveness.
It should also be noted that whilst most working competitions now are consistently won by dogs which have drives which can be described as extreme and such drives are highly desirable in top level sport and working dogs, such dogs would not make good family pets. There is a fine line between extreme drives and neurotic behaviors and as such, an extremely driven dog, which does not have outlets for its innate drives, can easily become neurotic. Extremely driven dogs have almost a pathological need to work in that mode; a fanatical retriever that will physically attack a wall to get a toy is an example. This dog would not make a good pet and most breeders would consider it has poor temperament. This is not the case, the dog has an extreme drive and needs to work in this particular mode, training can modify it but such a dog is exactly what the Customs service considers to be a good candidate. A detection dog must operate at this extreme level or it will be less effective. This dog is quite stable when given an outlet for its innate needs; in fact, it is a willing worker, which is capable of cognitive processes while working far beyond those of less driven dogs. Neurotic behaviors will occur as its innate potential is ignored and other environmental factors attempt to over modify the animals behavior causing the dog to internalize its need for outlet in the particular mode.
In the case of mature dogs drives which have appeared to be non-existent can be built on but at no time will the mature dog ever regain the maximum potential it had as a pup if it is not encouraged through its critical periods. We can teach a dog to fetch but we cannot make an extremely driven dog from him if he wasn't born that way. The handlers ability also plays a considerable role, if the handler is able to provide support for the less driven dog prior to the dog losing motivation the dog can be carried along to perform at levels which are actually higher than its innate potential. Such environmental factors make it very difficult to describe drives with any degree of accuracy and makes assessment that much more difficult.

Drives should not ever be seen as a negative part of a dog but should definitely be considered when choosing a dog. Most people are unable to successfully handle an extremely driven dog without significant professional assistance. This would be the major reason why world-class working kennels are very particular where their pups are being homed. In the wrong hands, their world-class dog becomes a public nuisance. In this example, the fault lies not with the dog but with the handlers failure to: (1) be able to handle the dog, and (2) choose a dog which suits his or her own needs and abilities. A versatile dog will not necessarily be extremely driven; in fact, extreme drive if not backed by excellent handling skills and a balanced training program will frequently work against the dog. A highly driven but balanced dog should be the aim of all kennels apart from those, which specifically specialize in producing dogs designed to work in specialized areas.
What is a Modal Threshold?

A modal threshold is the level of stimulation of the innate drive required by the dog to switch into the most appropriate mode, emotive state, so as to best react to the current situation. These thresholds or triggers are always self-regulated. As trainers, we cannot externally force a dog to adopt a particular threshold to suit our needs. However, through conditioning that involves withholding of the appropriate reward (the dogs desired behavior), we can teach the dog to regulate its own threshold to suit our needs. In scent work, we require a low prey threshold (we want the dog to switch to prey mode rapidly) but in obedience, we require a far higher threshold to maintain control during heeling (we want the dog to resist the switch to prey until it has completed exactly what it is we want). In bite work, we require different thresholds for different exercises. Guarding an object requires a far higher threshold (resist the trigger) of defense than a face attack does (rapidly trigger).

Thresholds are activated or triggered at the emotional level of the dog. Each of the three modes has a particular emotive state that will immediately switch the dog over to the most appropriate mode for the current situation. These emotional states and their triggering emotions are: defense - fear, social - security, and prey - excitement. Of particular importance when assessing the integrity of this information is to understand that during the domestication process we have altered the dog significantly from its wild ancestors by encouraging and selectively breeding for individuals which retain many infantile behaviors throughout their lifespan. This has significantly impacted upon the dog in the prey mode, as such instead of the true emotive response of hunger a state of excitement/playfulness is now the trigger.

This alteration through domestication is understandable when a person realizes that it is largely through the medium of play that a wild dog learns its hunting skills (such behaviors are not as once thought, instinctive). It would then stand to reason that if we have retained the infantile state to a large degree that the dog which has no real needs to hunt its own food would retain the infantile trigger for such a behavior throughout its life. It is also fair to say that dogs with extreme drives in the prey area will tend also to be triggered by the more traditional hunting triggers. This can lead to owners having greater degrees of difficulty in controlling such extreme drive dogs and is why such dogs should not really be considered good candidate for family pets.

Prey Mode

In prey mode the dog will give a greater priority to events which are relevant to that mode such as rapid sideways movement, the desire to chase, etc. It should be again noted that a mode does not affect the cognitive abilities of the dog; rather, it prioritizes what is happening in the dog's environment with relation to the mode it is in. A dog in prey mode will still use its cognitive abilities to think its way through events to best achieve the result it desires (i.e., the raising and lowering of the threshold or trigger for a desired behavior). A dog will voluntarily control the desire to chase a prey object until it in itself is reasonably sure that the chances of this chase being successful are relatively high. Failure to do so would impact on the viability of survival for the individual. This internal control is a learned feature based on the particular experiences of the individual in question. The classic example of this mode in the wild state is the rapid escape of a rabbit as it bursts for cover will trigger a response in the dog to chase. In a training sense, the throwing of the object is what we use to lead a dog into retrieval exercises, be they for formal training or play. This rapid movement is triggering the dog's emotional response in exactly the same way as the fleeing rabbit.

Social Mode

Social mode is the most common mode in which a dog will operate. In this mode, the emphasis is placed on the dogs pack. Dogs have an innate need to belong to a pack, domestication has not altered this requirement rather it has incorporated humans into the dogs view of its pack. All control exerted by the handler is achieved through social mode. Such control is achieved by the handler acting as a superior of the dog's own pack and making a request of a subordinate. The dog's compliance to such a request is attained by the dog acknowledging the handler's social superiority. The dog's innate need for the security of its position in a pack is the trigger for this mode.

Defense Mode

Defense mode is always responsible for aggression, unless such aggression is of psychotic nature. All forms of aggression are triggered by a fear of something; this fear need not be directly attributed to the recipient of the aggression personally. Fear can be felt if the dogs position in the pack is threatened, a member of the pack is threatened, the packs territory is threatened, etc. As fear is such a black word in the dog world, this must be heavily stressed. A dominant dog for example will switch from social to defense anytime it feels that its position in the pack is under threat. It is not necessarily scared of the transgressor more it is fearful of the loss of station. Interestingly to note is that nearly all forms of non-psychotic aggression noted by canine research derive from a switch from social mode to defense mode. The exception being predatory aggression required for the acquisition of food. However, fear is also involved here, as the dog will be fearful of not being able to eat. It could also be argued that the social concerns of the pack also play a part in this as well but as yet this still remains very unclear. With this in mind, it brings the practice of training bite work from a prey basis into question as the ideal model of education for this activity. Surely an approach from a social mode would be more relative to the dog and would give an increased aggressive response and yet improve the control level of the dog in call off exercises.

Modal Theory Training Applications

To consider the impact of this theory on how we approach the training of the dog we should consider what mode the dog must be in to comply with what we have asked of it. We then must also accept as fact that since the purpose of the mode is to priorities events relative to the dogs needs it would be impossible for the dog to operate in two modes simultaneously. As a result, we can theorize that a dog is able to rapidly switch from one mode to another and back again as is required to best priorities the situation, relative to its emotional state to obtain the highest degree of success for the activity the dog is engaged in.

An example of this would be that handler control is achieved through the social mode. A handler is using its higher position in the hierarchy to control the subordinate dog. As the required action will impact on the dogs security with in the pack (its acceptance, position, etc) the dog will switch from either prey or defense to the social mode to comply as the priority in this mode will give issues relative to the dogs security within its social system greater importance than the other two modes would. It should be noted very clearly that in this area, force could have a very negative effect. If the dog reacts through fear, he is not in social mode; he is in defense. Whilst the dog may comply out of fear of retribution, it has not necessarily accepted the higher position of the handler. This is why force is not a valid way to ensure domination of a dog.

A practical example of a switch to social mode triggered by issues of security is the call off from attack. A dog chasing a fleeing decoy is in prey mode as it nears the decoy it switches to defense mode to attack, when the handler calls it off it must switch back to social mode to comply with the wishes of its superior for the same reasons stated above. Fear of the handler has nothing to do with it and could not be used to obtain the result at best what you would get would be a dog which will bite and then let go only if the handler was close enough to intervene. This again is not the dog acknowledging a higher authority rather the dog giving way to superior force (avoidance).

Prey mode is responsible for play in the domesticated dog for reasons explained above. All play regardless of which mode the participants were in initially is carried out in prey mode. In play within a social setting, the play bow and other actions elicit a prey response from the recipient. There is also some research currently underway which suggests that the production of hormones also have a part to play through the sense of smell. These actions trigger the emotive response so that the recipient is able to undertake the correct behavioral response. Failure to respond to such a trigger could engage the defense trigger and a fight would result. This mode is the primary mode within which we will reward our dogs for correct completion of exercises, as the dog cannot feel anxiety whilst in this mode. Prey mode is still also triggered by food. This is the last remnant of true prey mode left from the domestication process. For some individuals this part of prey is a lot stronger than the desire to chase. I'd still speculate however, given that our dogs are well fed, that the enjoyment from food used in training is still based on the excitement of the dog pleasing the pack leader and as such still constitutes a modified play behavior. By switching our dogs to prey mode at the completion of an exercise we are clearly displaying to the dogs that we are happy with them. This lack of confusion is why dogs trained in this manner are a lot happier in their work and have improved handler bonds over the more institutionalized systems.

It is also important to note is that whilst a dog can only operate in a single mode at a time, the influences on a dog in one mode can effect the threshold of another mode. This does not imply that one mode or another is consistently more important to the dog, rather that a dog controls the thresholds of each mode to suit the individual circumstances it is currently in. In obedience heeling exercises, we use the social mode to increase the threshold of triggering the prey response. This allows us to hold the dogs focus on the task at hand until we release it at the completion of the desired exercise. If a prey object such as a retrieval toy is used as the motivator for the dog to respond we use the social mode, that is our position with relation to the dog in the hierarchy to stop the dog from switching to prey mode until we release the dog by throwing the article for it. In such circumstances, the dog must raise the threshold to achieve the results desired by a superior before being able to switch over to prey mode and play with the prey object the way it desires. This is copying the method used by pack superiors in wolf packs to hold younger, lower ranked dogs from spoiling a planned stalk.

This is as close to setting the thresholds as we can come, but it is still a judgment call from the dog, which actually sets the threshold. We show our disappointment if they get it wrong by withholding the reward and making the dog go through the exercise again. This way the dog soon learns to wait until it is allowed to switch, this is true control. We have all seen dogs that have low thresholds unable to complete the scenario given. The handler is unable to switch the dog to social mode where by he can control the dog. In such cases, the handler must look to ways in which he can maintain the dog in social mode when the prey object is in sight. This is achieved very gradually by withholding the reward from the dog until he has remained in social mode for gradually increasing periods of time. The dog learns to heighten its threshold or the reward will not be made available. This principal is identical to that of a wild dog attempting to elicit play with a superior of the pack, it must observe all the correct social forms so as not to infer a challenge to the superior and evoke a corrective response from him.

This also highlights why punishment of a forceful nature is ineffective in dealing with many canine behavioral problems. The dog in social mode is under our effective control, or at least is in the correct mode for us to obtain effective control. If we generate fear in the dog, subject to the dog's threshold at that point, we risk a defense reaction. If the dog is in prey or social modes and it has a low threshold for defense any incidence of fear being felt by the dog can result in a defense, read aggressive, response. We as handlers have caused this situation; it is not necessarily the fault of the dog. We have been unable to effectively communicate our desires to the dog in a non-threatening manner. If trainers persistently facing this problem were to use the prey mode as a reward for concentration of the dog in the social mode, the withholding of such a reward is more than enough punishment and more importantly is effectively communicated to the dog.

In extreme circumstance, the ultimate punishment is to banish the dog from the packs security. No dog is truly comfortable when it is in complete isolation from its peers, be they human or dog. This measure conveys unambiguously to the dog that its behavior will not be tolerated and if it continues its presence is not wanted. The dog's innate need for security is how we should control our dog, using the social mode reinforced by the medium of prey play as a reward for correct behavior. This is easily understood by the dog and limits the chances of defense modal reactions. This approach directly mimics the approach used by our dog's wild ancestors and a result it is readily understood.

It should also thus be apparent that any move towards correction can only be achieved successfully after the dog has switched to social mode. This is vitally important when the dog is in defense mode, as punishment applied to a dog, which remains in this mode, will most likely lead to greater aggression being shown. If the dog submits it has not necessarily moved back to social mode, it may simply choose to avoid the confrontation by acting submissive and yet remain firmly in defense mode. The dogs action immediately after will largely demonstrate which mode it is in and if the punishment has been understood and accepted. An example is that a wolf may submit to a bear to avoid a confrontation, this does not imply to the wolf that the bear is its superior, rather it is simply bigger and stronger. Handlers using force to obtain results from their dogs are simple creating the same scenario; the dog avoids a confrontation by acting submissive it has not acknowledged the handler's superiority. Dogs in prey/defense modes when corrected need to understand that it is an issue effecting their security within the pack, if they fail to understand this and feel fear they can also move to/remain in defense mode and aggression can result. If a dog is consistently failing to obey the commands of the handler, it is directly attributable to how the dog views the handler in relation to its social position. Force will not necessarily improve the handlers position but a demonstration of the power the handler has to control the dog, such as banishment, will. Remember that in a wild pack if the pack leader only had physical force or aggression as its means of controlling subordinates the whole pack would as a result of the fighting be unfit to hunt, end result death to the pack. Posturing and withholding of clearly understood rewards is how control is achieved. We as trainers need to mimic this not compete against it.

Summary

Modal theory allows dog trainers to use the emotional reactivity of the dog to effectively educate the dog in a manner that is clearly understood. The succinct way in which information is presented to the dog and the handlers ability to manipulate the dogs emotional reactivity to insure that the dog is in the best state of mind emotionally to receive and process this information increases the likelihood of the dog being effectively taught. This theory also insures that the rewards system required for operant conditioning to be effective is also clear and uncomplicated. This too in an operant conditioning framework increases the likelihood of desired behaviors becoming permanent.


http://www.uwsp.edu/psych/dog/macdonald1.htm

[daffodiluk]

A very iteresting article.

[Liz19602003]

Wow There is so much interesting information here and so helpful too. Steve is currently doing the KC Accreditation Scheme for Instructors in Dog Training and Canine Behaviour and I'm sure this article will help him enormously. Thanks K X

[suecj]

Thanks Karen, these articles have given me a lot to think about.